Discovery of Ancient Document Shifts Understanding of Nubian History
A recently discovered small document from ancient Dongola is changing historical perspectives on a lesser-known period in Sudan’s history.
This Arabic note, unearthed in the ruins of Old Dongola, supports the existence of King Qashqash, who had previously been viewed mostly as a mythical figure.
A study featured in Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa looks into an order issued in Qashqash’s name, found within a prominent residence in the city’s citadel. The text revolves around the trade of textiles and livestock. While it seems unremarkable at first glance, it offers valuable insights into governance, economic interaction, social networks, and the dissemination of Arabic literacy in Nubia during the Funj period.
The researchers describe the document as providing a “rare glimpse into Sudanic kingship” amid “one of the least-documented periods in Sudanese history.”
Dongola’s Transition from Makuria
Old Dongola, located in modern northern Sudan, served as the capital of Makuria, a prominent Christian Nubian kingdom. By the mid-14th century, it had lost that status, and subsequent centuries are difficult to piece together.
This transition wasn’t just a simple move from Christianity to Islam. The researchers emphasize that Arabization and Islamization were gradual processes, with Nubian traditions, Arabic literacy, Islamic governance, and local politics intermingling over generations.
A Noble Residence and Findings
The document was located in Building A.1, known locally as the House of the Mekk, or the ruler’s house. Evidence suggests that this structure was more elaborate than other dwellings at the site, highlighting a life of privilege.
During excavations, items such as cotton, linen, silk, leather shoes, a gold ring, and an ornamental handle from either ivory or rhinoceros horn were found. Additionally, lead ball ammunition and a cattle horn that might have served as a gunpowder flask indicate that the inhabitants had access to firearms, potentially seen as symbols of status in precolonial Nubia.
Between 2019 and 2021, researchers recovered 23 paper documents from this building, including letters, amulets, legal texts, and an administrative list. The king’s order originated from Room U128, an area roughly 5 × 4 meters (16 × 13 feet), where these papers were discarded.
The paper itself is quite small, measuring about 10.5 × 9.5 centimeters (4.1 × 3.7 inches). Dating methods suggest it was discarded sometime between the 17th and 18th centuries, but indications within the text imply it was penned earlier, possibly in the late 16th or early 17th century.
A Practical Royal Order
Instead of a grand royal proclamation, the document details a transactional exchange involving a man named Khiḍr, tasked with handling items between two individuals, Muḥammad al-ʿArab and ʿAbd al-Jābir. These included textiles and livestock. One partially damaged line might reference cotton items, potentially signifying something of elite value.
This focus on routine matters provides invaluable context. Rather than depicting a king engaged in warfare, it portrays him overseeing social connections, obligations, and resources.
The researchers suggest that this exchange likely reflects “micropolitical actions aimed at strengthening social ties,” illustrating the king’s everyday management rather than mere profit-driven trade.
From Legend to Reality
Before this find, knowledge of Qashqash mainly came from the Kitāb al-Ṭabaqāt, a 19th-century compilation grounded in oral traditions about Sudanese holy figures. In that account, he’s linked to Sheikh Ḥilālī and Muḥammad b. ʿĪsā Suwār al-Dhahab, a highly respected religious personality.
Because this evidence stemmed from later narratives, Qashqash’s historical validity was somewhat ambiguous. However, the new document alters that perception, positioning him as the earliest known post-medieval king of Dongola, while bolstering the assertion that King Ḥasan—often rumored to be his son—was indeed a real ruler.
The authors argue that the document offers “a compelling argument for the historicity of both rulers.”
The Evolution of Arabic in Nubia
This document also highlights a moment of linguistic evolution. Written in Arabic, it’s not in the refined Classical language; its spelling and grammar exhibit nonstandard features, suggesting that Arabic was increasingly vital for written communication, even as Nubian languages likely continued to hold everyday significance.
Notably, the scribe is identified as Ḥamad, showing that Qashqash depended on literate professionals. It’s also plausible that Khiḍr could read Arabic or had access to someone who could assist him.
The authors contend that this discovery aids in understanding “the linguistic transformations and cultural interactions that have influenced Nubia across time.”
This seemingly small piece of paper confirms that Qashqash was more than just an ephemeral myth. It illustrates Dongola as a dynamic political hub following the decline of Makuria, where rulers managed commerce, favors, and local power through everyday actions.
Reference: “The King of Nubia at work: archaeological context and text edition of a sixteenth/seventeenth-century Arabic document from Old Dongola” by Tomasz Barański, Artur Obłuski, and Maciej Wyżgoł, 6 February 2026, Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa.
